BIG data and data mining

In my household, big data is most directly related to the piles of LEGOs (or LEGO-system building components) that my boys have scattered around the house. Needles in haystacks are more often used as examples. My library of books around the house would be another example. In each case, big data basically means a lot of data.

A lot of anything, of course, is subjective. There are thousands of pieces of straw in a haystack. There are a few thousand books around my house. My boys have a couple of thousands of LEGOs. However, in the world of business (and surveillance) big data usually refers to hundreds of thousands (or even millions) of records -- each of which may have many minutes (audio) or many members (items sold in purchase records or words in emails, for example). Big data is just a way to describe lots of data.

Data mining is the process of finding that special yellow 2 by 2 LEGO in the pile, or finding the needle in the haystack, or finding a specific audio record that talks about things that are considered suspicious or dangerous.

Data mining has three basic components -- collection, storage, and analysis. These are not necessarily discrete stages but we'll discuss them separately (calling out exceptions).

As evidenced by the physical examples at the beginning of this blog, big data has always existed. Consider the stacks of paper birth certificates, or other historical documents that exist and which may need, from time to time, to be searched. The ability to effectively handle, and use, big data has gotten much easier since electronic formats have become standard.

• Collection. Collection usually occurs at the time of transmission (when the originated data is moved to a destination). This might be a phone call. It could be at a point-of-sale (POS) cash register after the order has been finalized. It might be the registration record for a class. Collection may either occur at the intended destination (the company invoice/purchase order database) or via interception. Interception is where collection occurs somewhere other than the intended destination -- "wire tapping", people looking over your shoulder when you enter your credit card security information, and so forth.
  
  Collection can occur anonymously or personalized. Personalization basically means that the record is associated with a corporate or living entity. In the case of a sale at a grocery store, the data will be associated with that store (and, possibly, that cashier and cash register). If you use a credit/debit card or a store "club" card, then the data can (and probably will) be associated with the person in addition. Generally, anonymous collection is considered innocuous while personalized collection is not. This does not mean there are not "legitimate" (proper, honorable) reasons to collect personal data but it does mean that the person may have concerns as to the purpose and safety of the data.
  
  
• Storage. This always occurs at some point. However, it may be transitory if the data are removed upon receipt and analysis. Consider a "normal" phone call. The audio message exists (and is stored) from the origination (talking) until the receiving person analyzes it. If the message is redirected (to voice mail, for example), intercepted, or copied, this may turn into a permanent record requiring long-term storage.
  
  Transactions (purchases, registration, email correspondence) where the data needs to be used in the future are almost all "permanently" stored. Of course, they can still be deleted in the future -- but, without advance knowledge of when, or if, this will occur they must be considered permanent.
  
  
• Analysis. This can occur during the process of collection or it may occur later (after storage). Anonymous data is often analyzed statistically. How many of product X were sold by store Y in city Z? How many of product X were sold in state B? How long is the average voice call within a state? Trends can be analyzed over time. Store Y in city X sold NN of product X at price B. They sold GG of product X at price C (can be used to determine overall profit using margin versus quantity sold). Product F sells very well during the time period D through G but not very well in period H through M (seasonal item to be stocked differently depending on time of year).
  
  Analysis can also be personalized. Customer ABC buys a lot of product F. Product G is similar but there is a greater profit margin on G -- send Customer ABC coupons for product G to get them to start buying product G on a regular basis. Or Customer DEF only buys product F if the price is below $ZZ.ZZ. Customer BEF is now buying baby products -- notify baby supply companies of contact information.
  
  Finally, analysis can be triggered. Surveillance can use trigger words, or sequences of words (either written or audio) to divert records to further analysis. If you start buying diabetic-related foods and medicines, the data CAN be forwarded to your insurance company (and yes -- if the data is associated with you, then they CAN find your insurance company).
  

Big data does not change the stages but it does change the methods. There will often be multiple layers of analysis so that each step reduces the number of records to be analyzed. Analysis upon collection will specifically affect the manner in which the data are sorted and stored. And so forth.

People usually don't object to anonymous statistical analysis. They may start feeling threatened with personalized statistical analysis although they may also benefit from the results.

They often will feel threatened with triggered analysis because their "private" data are being used without explicit permission and can be used to exploit the data in some way. In addition, triggers can lead to false conclusions quite easily (you were actually buying diabetes supplies for your great Aunt, you have been reading a book about bad thing XXX and were discussing it with a friend). Big data methods are particularly susceptible to false initial triggers (although, hopefully, further analysis will filter more appropriately).

The Minimum Maximum: what is a bottleneck?

When you have a system that is made of various parts, there will always be some part which limits the overall performance of the system. Within flow situations (water, gas, data, etc.) this is called a "bottleneck". However, this concept can be extended to many things that we encounter in life, so I am going to discuss a more general concept that I call the "Minimum Maximum".

For example, you see a really high-performance car on the road. However, the performance of this car is much worse than you know of its capability -- it takes several seconds to start after the light says to go, it cuts corners or moves across the dividing lines of the road, it's speed varies on a constant basis. The reality is that the performance of the car is based on the best ability of the car and the driver. If the car is great and the driver's ability is "poor to middlin" then the car will only be capable of being driven. The purchase of a car is based on capability to buy -- not capability to drive. So, the high-performance car is "wasted" with the not-so-good driver. The car can be called "overkill" because its features and performance cannot be used appropriately.

If a race-car driver is behind the wheel of a poor-performance car then she or he will only be able to drive that car to the best of its ability. It is optimum to "tune" the system. Good cars for good drivers and poor cars for poor drivers.

In the world of the Internet, this is more often called a bottleneck. Let's say that you have a broadband connection that can provide 30 Mega bits per second (Mbps). However, you have an older computer and it can only process data at a rate up to 10 Mbps. The ability to use data from the Internet will be limited to the 10 Mbps of the computer. Going the other direction, if you have a powerful comupter but your access to the Internet is limited to 128 kilobits per second (128 kpbs) then you might as well get a slower (and less expensive) connection.

This would also apply to general gaming (not multiplayer and not connected to the Internet. If your disk drive can access data at 5 Mbps and your processor can only display at a rate of  3 Mbps then your disk drive is faster than necessary.

The problem with many situations for optimizing (or tuning) is that it is done in a multipurpose way. In the first Internet case, replacing the computer (or upgrading it) would increase the overall performance    The same holds true for the second example (upgrading the computer will raise overall performance.

I'm sure that you can think of many other instances. When my family goes off to Chuch, we often have to wait for the "slowest". -- that person is the Minimum Maximum.

Whenever two or more systems interact, the various parts will work at various speeds/capabilities. Similar to doing Least Common Denominator (LCD) problems in school, the "MinMax" is the way to dtermine what is slowing down YOUR system (and an indicator as to what might need to be upgraded first.
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The REAL food pyramids: sustaining the foundation

Several organizations around the world have attempted to create graphical representations of what we should eat -- sometimes called "food pyramids" (current USDA version is a "food plate"). At first, it looks like this should work pretty well since food percentages are roughly 65/25/15 (carbohydrates/fats/proteins). Unfortunately, when this translates to actual food, most food is composed of a combination of nutritional elements. All fats are not considered to be of the same benefit and the effect of carbohydrates varies immensely depending on included fiber and other nutritional building blocks. Thus, it is difficult to use a pyramid to represent food needs. People still will often think of these food pyramids.

However, there are true food pyramids based on the needs and abundance of life on the planet. These are sometimes called trophic pyramids or energy pyramids. At the foundation level of these pyramids exists life that uses the energy from the sun (directly or indirectly) to manufacture food and body. On the land, these organisms are broadly called plants. In the sea, they are broadly called plankton -- although phytoplankton are the specific ones which are able to perform photosynthesis (creation from light).

These foundation foods (or primary producers) are eaten by the "higher layers" of the ecological food pyramids. It is possible for any organism to make use of them directly. For example, whales may feed on krill which are considered to be plankton (although they, in turn, make use of phytoplankton). In general, the lowest level are directly consumed by the next most abundant form of life. In a food pyramid, the next "level" can be determined by either number or function. Another way of putting it would be to think of a cartoon depiction of a very small fish being eaten by a small fish eaten by a medium fish eaten by a giant fish.

The organisms of the next level are called primary consumers. Primary consumers eat primary producers. So, herbivores are a general class of primary consumers. Although we usually think of mammals as herbivores, insects may be herbivores and worms might be considered to be herbivores.

The following level, sometimes called secondary consumers, may be either omnivores or carnivores. That is, they may eat a combination of producers (plants/phytoplankton) and primary consumers (or other secondary consumers) -- or they may be strictly carnivores that eat only other consumers. The "highest" level (in terms of the pyramid) eats only consumers.

These concepts are discussed in various ways -- food chains, food webs, ecological chains, and so forth. In whatever way they are approached, there are producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and tertiary consumers. The primary producers are always at the base.

The base determines the overall capacity of the entire pyramid. Thus, it is enormously important to protect that base. In the sea and on land, the largest threat is pollution although global climate change will certainly affect it in various ways. Note, however, that pollution can be either an aspect of waste ("garbage", runoff from managed land, etc.) or deliberate (even if accidental) contamination by oil and chemical spills and use of various chemicals within the food and non-food production chains.

As omnivores, humans have the capacity to shift their herbivore/carnivore balance -- they can be primarily meat eaters or primarily plant eaters. A shift towards the lower levels can allow more food to be available for all.

Simplified is not necessarily better -- the tyranny of the average

There is a strong tendency in our society to try to make things "simple". I don't know whether it is because we are so time rushed or because we have such an imbalanced system of education. Sometimes having it simplified works to a specific person's benefit -- sometimes it is quite unfavorable to a specific person.

Simplification is often linked closely with statistics. As Mark Twain is quoted as saying -- "there are liars, damned liars, and statisticians". Statistics are applied math so they should be accurate -- however, the actual use of the formulas and numbers are decided by people and people make decisions based on what they want to have be true (either consciously or subconsciously).

One example of this are the figures quoted by politicians during election time. "The average income tax went down during my administration". Hmmm. Well, this statement could be "true" if the average income also went down during the time. It could be "true" if the tax rates went down (this is the interpretation the politician probably hopes you will make). It could be "true" if tax rates went down for one segment of the people (usually the high-income group) but went up slightly for other segments (and this has been happening in the U.S. for the past 12 years or so).

Three different realities -- all "supported" by the same "facts".

One area that hits hard for me is the Body Mass Index (BMI) number. The BMI is a fast, easy, "simple" method to indicate whether a person is overweight. It is reasonably accurate (+/- 5% or so) for about eight out of ten people. Who are the other 20% of the population? They are people who are particularly tall (more than 15% above average) or short (20% or more less than average) or people who have large amounts of muscle tissue -- yes, the "fit" are most at risk from inaccuracies on the BMI.

All of this would be academic if it wasn't so easy to fit these simplistic numbers into other formulas -- such as actuarial tables used by insurance companies. So, if you happen to be a body builder then be prepared to pay more from private insurance companies (on life and health) for being "too fat". If you are very short, then you can be rather overweight and still have the insurance count in your favor. If you are very tall, however, then you need to be prepared to pay more once again. Oh -- and I forgot to add -- computerized dating systems tend to like to use BMI in their calculations so expect body builders to be matched up with others of ample dimensions.

The reason the BMI is used is that it is easy and cheap -- take your weight (in kg) and divide it by your height (in meters) squared and you have a handy, dandy, all-purpose number. In order to really find out an accurate number, it is necessary to find real body fat percentage. There are formulas that measure different areas on one's body and then use those in conjunction with weight to get a number that works for 95%+ of the population. But it takes more time and more time means fewer patients seen and that means smaller profits. It is also possible to do a submersion test (where your body is submerged into a tank of water to accurately determine volume) that is the most accurate way to measure density (weight divided by volume equals density).

These are two methods where the average can hurt those who don't fit. There are many others. But do your best to understand the implications of statistical statements -- it may not mean what it seems.

What makes Blu-Ray (TM) Blue?

In the last blog, I talked about the difference between continuous (analog) data and discrete (digital) data. One of the most popular, "hands-on", types of data that people use each day are that for audio and video.

In the case of audio, analog data are often considered to be the most "faithful" to the sound. Digital adherents say that the sound stays crisp and clear. They are actually both correct. When analog recordings are made they are able to reproduce all of the "between" sounds that are dropped during analog recordings. While one can debate as to whether it can be heard by most people, it does exist and, therefore, there may be a substantial difference even if only noticed by the subconscious.

Analog recordings primarily fall into two categories -- an engraved reproduction of the sound waves or a magnetic version. Each has the capability of continuous data recording. However, the use of such recordings requires destructive mechanical mechanisms to be "read" after being recorded. For the "engraved" (vinyl, records, wax cylinders -- yes all have been used) version this means a sharp object following the path of the engraving which will eventually start cause eroding the engraving and a deterioration of the sound. For magnetic versions, the media (tape usually) wears while being pulled and the magnetic material on the tape also gets worn by friction with the reading "head".

Thus, as time goes on and the recording gets used, the recording will get worse -- while, in general, a digital recording will stay the same. So the audiophiles and the digital adherents are both "right".

CHALLENGE: It should be possible to create a commercially viable analog recording medium that can be read non-destructively. With all the bright people and companies employing bright people this should be possible. Make it so!

As discussed in the previous blog, digital media (for audio and video especially) requires decisions as to how much data will be omitted. This is precision and sampling rate. For human speech, it is considered acceptable to take a sample 8000 times per second and the data can be recorded with the use of 8 binary units ("bits"). This means that a digital recording of human speed will require 480,000 bytes (8 bits), or 480 KB per minute of recording. In the case of "high fidelity" digital recordings of music, the sampling rate can be increased and the precision may also be increased. This ends up with a greater amount of data.

Currently, a popular way to record this data is on optical disks. The digital data are marked on the optical media with very, very small pits. A pit can be considered to be a "1" and a land (non-pit) can be considered to be a "0". Note that this is actually very similar to analog engravings except for the nature of the data. Please also note that the exact encoding is actually more complicated than I am saying -- check other sources for more precise descriptions.

A larger difference form analog data, however, is how the data are read once recorded. An optical disk makes use of a laser which can tell whether there is a pit or a land by the timing of the reflection from the medium. This reading is non-destructive and, as long as the optical medium is not otherwise damaged, should retain data unchanged for a long time.

We now enter into the third area of data recordings which is storage space. An audio CD makes use of a near-infrared laser (wavelength of 780 nm). This wavelength determines how dense the data can be placed on the optical medium. For an audio CD, using 780 nm wavelength lasers, about 737 MB (megabytes) of data can be stored in a single layer (a disk CAN have multiple layers with the laser reading separately from the different layers of the disk). Since this amount of data is considered to be around 80 minutes of music, we can see that, for an audio CD, each minute takes about 10 MB of data so the precision and sampling rate are much higher than considered acceptable for human speech -- greater "fidelity".

The wavelength of the laser determines density -- how "packed" the data can be. This limits the total amount of data in a predetermined physical size.  One method of increasing the density is by decreasing the wavelength of the laser.

A Blu-Ray disc uses a "blue" (blue is officially considered to be 475 nm) laser with a wavelength of 405 nm. A single layer Blu-Ray disk can store about 25 gigabyte (GB) of data. For audio, this would be about 100 hours using the same encoding as CDs. DVDs use a wavelength of about 650 nm ("true" red)..

Analog and digital data

I thought that I would talk about digital media -- CDs, DVDs, Blu-Ray, and so forth. But then I realized that I really needed to first talk about what digital media are -- and that, in turn, means that it is important to talk about analog.

Analog data are a reflection of events that occur on a continual basis. Such things include time, temperature, sound, moving images, water flowing, and so forth. An analog watch is known by its "face" -- where the "hands" are located to allow a person to interpret the data (information).

It would be completely possible for a watch to have a single hand. All the information is present in the hour hand. However, it is difficult to "read" (interpret) the value with a single hand and, therefore, analog watches and clocks normally have a minute hand and may even have a second hand.

In my old university, they had an analog computer. Set up correctly, it would be able to be used to calculate an exact value for Pi. But this brings up further the problems with analog data -- being able to actually make use of the data in a precise manner.An analog thermometer can give a precise value but can a person really read it that clearly? Is it saying 98.6 or saying 98.53?

Digital data can only create approximations of continual information. There are a lot of non-continual data in the world -- particularly in the area of finances. However, when it comes to continual data, you are involved with sampling rates and precision. The sampling rate is how often you "mark down" the information. You take a sample of sound at 1 hour, 20 minutes, 15 seconds, and 180 milliseconds. You then take a sample of the sound every 20 milliseconds -- but, whatever interval you choose, you are also choosing to ignore the data that exists when you are not taking a sample. You will never really know what happened within that 20 millisecond gap. You can guess what it might be -- that is called interpolation -- but you cannot know.

The second part of digital data is precision. For money (or other non-continual data), the precision is self-defined by what exists (although other units may exist for formulas -- like taxes). For continual data, the precision is a choice. Do you record 98.5, 98.54, 98.536, 98.5359, or what? Once again, you lose data/information and your choice CAN make a difference if the data are used in a repetitive fashion (such as calculating trajectories for a space ship).

So, analog data are accurate but very difficult to interpret precisely. Digital data are an approximation but have ease of interpretation as a built-in aspect of the choices that are made.

And this leads into the next blog "What makes Blu-Ray (TM) Blue?"

Metabolic balance: to lose or gain

People talk about metabolism when they talk about weight gain or loss. Metabolism is actually the entire process of conversion of food into energy and building blocks. What they are truly talking about is "metabolic rate". Someone who is considered to be a "fat burner" actually has a high metabolic rate. Most people know other people who seem to be able to eat just about anything (and everything) and stay thin.

The formula for weight loss (or gain) is "calories taken in - (calories * metabolic rate) = excess/deficit of calories to maintain weight). The body is very smart and it does NOT like to lose weight -- it considers it a "starvation" situation. Thus, when a deficit of calories is taken in, the body will reduce the metabolic rate in order to maintain weight. While it is possible to lose weight by "just" reducing calories, your body will fight it by lowering the metabolic rate and increasing the amount of hunger you feel. Since the body fights loss of weight, it will also respond to lack of calories by burning proteins in addition to fats which will also tend to reduce the metabolic rate.

As mentioned, the body is very "smart" -- it knows how much food is needed to maintain weight and it knows what building blocks (minerals, vitamins, proteins,  However, in current society, we have deadened our abilities to listen to our bodies -- ignoring what it tells us. It is deadened by the pace of our lifestyles as well as the increased availability of calorie-dense foods which appeal to our hunger triggers.

There are things that CAN be done to return control over our ability to listen to our bodies AND take control over whether we are at the weight we desire.

• Exercise. This is probably the number one thing that we can do -- both aerobic (body moving, heart rate increased) and non-aerobic (weights, muscles working hard) exercise are of use. Aerobic exercise on a regular, prolonged, basis help to increase the metabolic rate directly. Anaerobic exercise increases muscle mass which requires more calories to maintain and, thus, effectively increases the metabolic rate. Contrary to popular belief, exercise does not increase appetite although it does help us to listen to our bodies more carefully -- so, if we are hungry, we will feel hungry. Try to drink non-sweetened liquids first, followed by bulkier foods such as celery or carrots.
  
• Meditative exercise. While some aerobic or non-aerobic exercise may take place at the same time, the primary benefit is allowing us to get in touch with the needs of our bodies. Activities such as yoga or meditation, in general, fall into this class.
  
  
• Slow down eating. Take smaller bites and eat slower. This allows the time needed for the body to say "I'm no longer hungry". In order to avoid the lag between eating and satiation (lack of hunger) it is good to stop when one is just a little bit hungry.
  
• Drink non-sweetened liquid. Water is good. Teas and Coffees and flavored waters also work. Artificially sweetened liquids (and foods) do not work well as they tend to actually increase hunger. Filling the stomach with non-sweetened liquids helps to reach satiation quicker.
  
• Spicy food. The capsaicin found in spicy peppers has been shown to increase metabolic rate a little. While this is not highly significant, spicy peppers tend to be mixed in with other vegetables and other non-calorie-dense foods.
  
• Limit calorie-dense foods. We talked about the various components of a healthy diet over a series of blogs. However, calorie-dense foods (high fat, high sugar) are easy to eat "too much" of very quickly. Eat them in small quantities and savor them (eat slowly while enjoying the flavor).
  
• Increase bulky foods. Vegetables, high-fiber complex carbohydrates (oatmeal), and such will satiate with lower calorie foods.

 The bottom line is to allow your body to tell you what it needs. This is very difficult in modern society with its fast pace and a heavily marketed variety of calorie-dense foods but, at the end, you have changed your lifestyle to enjoy the food you eat better and to regain control over your body.

They DON'T make them like they used to.

People sometimes say "they don't make them like they used to" -- usually referring to something that has broken down and has to be recycled, discarded, or replaced. This is a truth that has entered into a special category of use.

The reality is that the way things are made is always changing. Sometimes they are made faster, with new techniques. Sometimes they are made with new features and new technologies. Sometimes they are made, deliberately, to not last as long.

There are three general categories of change in how/why things are made. These can be called "marketing", "manufacturing", and "labor".

• Marketing. This is the active art of consumerism. This is what makes people want to buy something. The global economy is presently structured around consumerism. The rationale falls into what I would call the "three Fs" -- fashion, features, and failure.
  
  Fashion is a desire for something "new" for the sake of having something new. Change in styles are presented as being "better" than what currently exists. "Orange is the new Purple" (Purple having been the previous preferred color). "Chrome is in". Skirt lengths go up -- or down. Teak is the preferred wood. So, out with the old and in with the new (although, if you keep it long enough, the cycle will come back someday).
  
  Features. New programs require faster computers or more memory. Faster speed requires new connectors and those old connectors won't work anymore. This hat has a higher SPF (Sun Protection Factor). The new game has more versatile character sets and better graphics. There is "improvement" but marketing works to move it from the "want" to "need" category.
  
  Failure. I don't think that many manufactures REALLY design their products to fail (they rely on fashion and features more to entice you to get something new). However, they do have a desired lifetime for the product when they create it. Too short and you won't buy their products again. Too long and you won't need to buy their products again if fashion or features don't draw you away. And, within that designed product lifetime, it causes choices to be made in manufacturing. Given a choice between a less expensive part that lasts "lifetime + a little more" and a more expensive part that lasts "three lifetimes" -- they will make it with the less expensive part. So, manufacturing (next section) is designed with the projected lifetime in mind.
• Manufacturing. As mentioned in a previous blog, technology and manufacturing rely on a pyramid of tools and less complicated parts. Manufacturing a DVR requires laser technology, semiconductor technology, power technology, and so forth. What this means to the consumer is that the end product is made up of more complicated, but fewer, separate ("discrete") parts.
  
  It may be faster, smaller, and less energy consuming ("green") but it will also be more complex. Most technology is now manufactured largely by "robotic" technology with humans doing the specialized work that doesn't justify building a more-specific "robot". This is even true for things like clothing where the fibers are made, or spun, or extruded by factory processes and then machined/loomed/created by machines that may only need humans to replace spools or to adjust things that have gone slightly askew.
  
  In summary for manufacturing -- fewer, more complex parts that avoid human interaction in creation.
• Labor. This area directly goes "hand in hand" with manufacturing. In countries where labor costs are "high", it may cost more to repair something than to replace it. In countries where labor costs are "low", you can find items repaired in extremely ingenious ways (they weren't designed to be repaired) because the cost of repairing is less than replacement.

So, they DON'T make them like they used to and we probably don't want them to do so. What we do want is to have the items last as long as WE want them to rather than as the manufacturer has determined. Often, choices are available but we don't know what those choices include -- expected durability is not something that is advertised on the packing of products. We rely on consumer groups and other people's ratings to make choices. And, I guess, that is the best we'll do for a while.

Smoke Gets in Your Lungs

In the present day, there's a lot of controversy about smoking. Old substances (tobacco) are in decline and are often under public disdain. "New" ones (marijuana) are in ascendance and are becoming more acceptable and may even cross the line back into legality (it's not really new and has a long history of various stages of legality -- see the Wikipedia entry Legal History of Cannabis).

However, because of its controversial legality and use, the health aspects of marijuana smoking have not been pursued as it has been for tobacco. There are also other substances that are sometimes smoked -- heated and inhaled or brought into the mouth. So, let's take a step back and just look into the smoke.

Smoke occurs when substances are burned. Many firefighter (and people trapped in fire areas)  injuries are associated with smoke inhalation. There are good (but highly technical) sources such as Wikipedia for articles on the various possibilities depending on factors such as heat, presence of other substances, humidity, and so forth. In this blog, we will concentrate on the tobacco and marijuana smoke voluntarily inhaled in relatively limited amounts by "smokers" and "tokers".

Smoke has four major aspects: carbon monoxide, tars and particulates, active ingredients, and additives.

1. Carbon Monoxide. This gas is created by incomplete burning of the material. It is primarily a danger to those "inhaling" as it is more lung-related. It is present in all smoke in varying degrees and is considered to be a poison as the body will absorb it and it decreases general function and may cause death. It is absorbed into the blood cells and decreases the ability to absorb oxygen and, thus, reduces stamina and general ability to perform at optimum levels. There is little difference in the effects between tobacco and marijuana smoke.
   
   
2. Tars and Particulates. These are the visible parts of smoke -- if you can see it, they are present. They are what cause the darkened areas of X-rays of lungs. "Tars" are resinous substances -- usually quite sticky and they cause the staining of teeth (and lungs) and can act as a kind of glue in the lungs, reducing the ability of the lungs to absorb oxygen. The particulates can vary in size depending on the temperature of the burning material and the size of the parts being burned and can act as an irritant causing more mucous production which is a major cause of "smoker's cough". It takes about five years for the lungs to fully repair from the damage caused by these substances and is considered to be a major trigger of lung cancer. This area could use more study but it is likely that there is little difference between tobacco and marijuana smoke.
   
   
3. Active Ingredients. These are the substances that interact with other parts of the body to cause the effects anticipated by smokers and tokers. In tobacco, this substance is nicotine which has many effects but primarily acts as a stimulant. It also has a mile diuretic (body water removing) effect which may cause weight loss for beginning smokers (and cause some temporary weight gain after quitting). It is water-soluble and, thus, is ideally administered via smoking. Anecdotally, nicotine is considered to help general focus and mental activity but there are no controlled studies verifying this. Nicotine also tends to paralyze the cilia in the trachea (windpipe) and, thus, may increase mucous retention and coughing. There are a few minor medical purposes for nicotine but it is highly physically addictive
   
   The primary active ingredient in marijuana is tetrahydrocannabinol (usually referred to, for obvious reasons, as THC). Its effects vary from individual to individual and is considered primarily a "psychoactive" (acting primarily on the central nervous system) drug. Common effects include increased appetite, decreased nausea and pain, and a reduced sperm production in men. It is not considered to be highly physically addictive although a varying amount of emotional or psychological addiction is possible for both marijuana and tobacco.
   
   
4. Additives. Since tobacco has been legal for many years and is a highly competitive industry, each company does what it can to both distinguish and "enhance" its brand of tobacco. Glycerin is normally added to increase shelf life and prevent the tobacco from drying out. Formaldehyde (think of frogs in jars in biology class) is added to make absorption and crossover to the brain more rapid. This increases the risk of physical addiction. Many other additives are also present -- from spices such as cinnamon and cloves to liquids such as menthol and other oils. Formaldehyde is known as a carcinogen and the burning by-products of the other additives have not been extensively tested. However, this is an area that is highly likely to contribute to act as cancerous triggers (especially for non-lung-related cancers). Tobacco is much worse in this area than marijuana.

Inhaling or not inhaling? As a water-soluble drug, the effects of nicotine are dependent upon the surface area times the duration of exposure. This is also true for other additive burn by-products. Thus, inhaling would be worse if holding it in the mouth was done for the same amount of time. However, this is not actually the case as cigar and pipe smokers tend to allow the smoke to remain in their mouths longer. Thus, there may be close to the same exposure for nicotine and additives. However, there would still be greatly reduced effects from the carbon monoxide and particulates. With THC, it varies upon the general environment. It is not considered to be water-soluble but it IS lipid (fats) and alcohol-soluble so, if taken with food or drink, it is probably absorbed as readily (or more readily) than bringing into the lungs.

What's the fuss about GMOs?

There has been a lot of flurry about Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) in the press and Internet. What is a GMO and what are the concerns about it? GMOs are actually the tail end of a sequence of food modifications -- the process is the least "natural" and the most uncertain as to long-term consequences. The series begins with natural hybridization, leads through human hybridization, and continues to GMOs.

• Natural hybridization. Plants and animals change over time. Through a process of "natural selection" and "spontaneous mutation", life changes to adapt to best survive in a particular environment. Sometimes this combination of processes is called "evolution". A "spontaneous mutation" isn't anything menacing or bad -- it just means that the "child" is significantly different from the "parent". If the change brings advantages then the "child" is more likely to survive. If the change brings disadvantages then the "child is less likely to survive. This is "natural selection" and it applies to all plants and animals.
  
  
• Human-directed hybridization. Plants and animals are naturally diverse. They have slightly different characteristics from each other. By choosing life that has attributes that are "desirable" to propagate to the next generation -- mixing and choosing -- new combinations of attributes will emerge within the offspring.
  
  The difference between this and natural hybridization is that the new attributes are not normally chosen based on the plant surviving without human intervention. In fact, the opposite is often true. Human hybridized life often requires ongoing human intervention. This may include more water than is naturally available within the region. It may require special weeding and chemical support. If left alone, without human support, it will often "revert" back to the varieties that best survive.
  
  
• A GMO takes this choice one (considerable) step further. The actual seeds, or eggs, are manipulated to add or remove genetic material from one form of life and integrated together. The goal is to make the genetic change inheritable from one generation to the next. One can look at it as "non-spontaneous" mutation. Desired attributes may include "better" flavor, easier transportation, longer lasting after harvest ("shelf life"), faster or greater growth, or greater production (more fruit or milk produced, for example).
  
  There is nothing specifically bad about this -- it is just hurrying nature along. However, many of these changes are highly unlikely to ever occur spontaneously. Some genetic material from animals may be added to plants or vice versa.
  
  The primary warning, or fear, from GMOs is that, by introducing life that would probably never occur naturally, there is little knowledge of what the long term interactions within the ecosystem, or between producers and consumers, will be. There may be little difference between the genetics of a nutritious plant and that of a slow-acting poison. Studies of new organisms rarely are long-term, checking effects through the generations.
  
  Another problem is that GMOs may be patented. The courts sometimes take a contrary view of this by applying existing patent logic. Existing patent logic is based on the idea that patented ideas/materials can spread only by being "taken" or specifically reproduced. Thus, plants that contain the patented genes have "stolen" the new material. While this follows existing patent logic it does not apply properly to living material that can naturally spread. It should be treated as "invasive" or an "infection" where the GMO is actually "attacking" the non-modified life. Patent law needs to be updated to existing realities.

GMOs are not inherently bad. They are inherently a change and changes take a while to determine benefits or risks. GMOs already are in wide use within human food. Some countries require GMOs to be labeled as such, feeling like the public should be aware they are part of a long-term study of effects. However, due to the widespread use of GMOs, food producers often fight against this notification. Specifically, corn is often a GMO plant and, in the U.S., corn syrup is used in many food products. Most food (including sweetened carbonated beverages) would need GMO labeling because the product includes GMOs.

The Science and Economics of Nutrition, Summary

We've seen that nutrition involves bringing into the body a full set of "building blocks" such that the body can build, repair, and maintain itself.

Starvation occurs when the body does not have enough calories to maintain its "operational needs" -- not enough fuel to keep going. When the body does not have enough calories, it first burns stored fats and then starts burning proteins -- which include muscles and organs (such as the heart) and eventually causes death.

Malnutrition occurs when the body does not have enough of all of the different "building blocks" to create, repair, and maintain the various components of the body. This is particularly devastating to the young when they are initially forming the body -- it can cause long-term effects. (In adults, temporary malnutrition can be recovered from unless it lasts too long.). Illness and inability to perform daily tasks well are often the outcome of malnutrition.

In the U.S., we are fortunate that private charitable food banks and government programs make starvation almost non-existent. However, malnutrition exists to a considerable degree with a greater concentration among the poor.

There are four components of achieving good nutrition. These are knowledge of good nutritional needs, action taken based on that knowledge, time, and money. Most of the focus is on knowledge -- but many educational programs in school attempt to avoid science and rely on "rote" formulas. This lack of foundational understanding of nutrition makes the task of achieving good nutritional balance difficult in an atmosphere of mass media marketing. False, or misleading, claims are easily accepted. Sometimes it causes rote formulas to be followed such as "red meat is bad" without understanding WHY read meat CAN be "bad".

Money directly enters into nutritional decisions. Good nutrition is more expensive than poor nutritive, high calorie choices. Given a sufficient budget, however, it is possible to provide good nutritional meals but it requires time to plan, choose, and prepare good meals.

I have never encountered a "30 minute meal" that I can prepare in 30 minutes. A parent who is working two (or three) part-time minimum wage jobs does not want to allocate the time -- there is homework to work with, houses to clean, medical appointments and soccer games to juggle. Well balanced restaurant meals are expensive but fast food alternatives are widely, and energetically, marketed and sold to the public.

Frozen vegetables are more nutritious but take more time to prepare than canned. Given a choice between a $1 apple and a $1 candy bar -- which do you think most children would choose?

Many books and even television series have been produced about good nutrition. In order for it to be applied, however, the underlying principles need to be understood in order to map that information to good choices that can be applied each day.