Simplified is not necessarily better -- the tyranny of the average

There is a strong tendency in our society to try to make things "simple". I don't know whether it is because we are so time rushed or because we have such an imbalanced system of education. Sometimes having it simplified works to a specific person's benefit -- sometimes it is quite unfavorable to a specific person.

Simplification is often linked closely with statistics. As Mark Twain is quoted as saying -- "there are liars, damned liars, and statisticians". Statistics are applied math so they should be accurate -- however, the actual use of the formulas and numbers are decided by people and people make decisions based on what they want to have be true (either consciously or subconsciously).

One example of this are the figures quoted by politicians during election time. "The average income tax went down during my administration". Hmmm. Well, this statement could be "true" if the average income also went down during the time. It could be "true" if the tax rates went down (this is the interpretation the politician probably hopes you will make). It could be "true" if tax rates went down for one segment of the people (usually the high-income group) but went up slightly for other segments (and this has been happening in the U.S. for the past 12 years or so).

Three different realities -- all "supported" by the same "facts".

One area that hits hard for me is the Body Mass Index (BMI) number. The BMI is a fast, easy, "simple" method to indicate whether a person is overweight. It is reasonably accurate (+/- 5% or so) for about eight out of ten people. Who are the other 20% of the population? They are people who are particularly tall (more than 15% above average) or short (20% or more less than average) or people who have large amounts of muscle tissue -- yes, the "fit" are most at risk from inaccuracies on the BMI.

All of this would be academic if it wasn't so easy to fit these simplistic numbers into other formulas -- such as actuarial tables used by insurance companies. So, if you happen to be a body builder then be prepared to pay more from private insurance companies (on life and health) for being "too fat". If you are very short, then you can be rather overweight and still have the insurance count in your favor. If you are very tall, however, then you need to be prepared to pay more once again. Oh -- and I forgot to add -- computerized dating systems tend to like to use BMI in their calculations so expect body builders to be matched up with others of ample dimensions.

The reason the BMI is used is that it is easy and cheap -- take your weight (in kg) and divide it by your height (in meters) squared and you have a handy, dandy, all-purpose number. In order to really find out an accurate number, it is necessary to find real body fat percentage. There are formulas that measure different areas on one's body and then use those in conjunction with weight to get a number that works for 95%+ of the population. But it takes more time and more time means fewer patients seen and that means smaller profits. It is also possible to do a submersion test (where your body is submerged into a tank of water to accurately determine volume) that is the most accurate way to measure density (weight divided by volume equals density).

These are two methods where the average can hurt those who don't fit. There are many others. But do your best to understand the implications of statistical statements -- it may not mean what it seems.

What makes Blu-Ray (TM) Blue?

In the last blog, I talked about the difference between continuous (analog) data and discrete (digital) data. One of the most popular, "hands-on", types of data that people use each day are that for audio and video.

In the case of audio, analog data are often considered to be the most "faithful" to the sound. Digital adherents say that the sound stays crisp and clear. They are actually both correct. When analog recordings are made they are able to reproduce all of the "between" sounds that are dropped during analog recordings. While one can debate as to whether it can be heard by most people, it does exist and, therefore, there may be a substantial difference even if only noticed by the subconscious.

Analog recordings primarily fall into two categories -- an engraved reproduction of the sound waves or a magnetic version. Each has the capability of continuous data recording. However, the use of such recordings requires destructive mechanical mechanisms to be "read" after being recorded. For the "engraved" (vinyl, records, wax cylinders -- yes all have been used) version this means a sharp object following the path of the engraving which will eventually start cause eroding the engraving and a deterioration of the sound. For magnetic versions, the media (tape usually) wears while being pulled and the magnetic material on the tape also gets worn by friction with the reading "head".

Thus, as time goes on and the recording gets used, the recording will get worse -- while, in general, a digital recording will stay the same. So the audiophiles and the digital adherents are both "right".

CHALLENGE: It should be possible to create a commercially viable analog recording medium that can be read non-destructively. With all the bright people and companies employing bright people this should be possible. Make it so!

As discussed in the previous blog, digital media (for audio and video especially) requires decisions as to how much data will be omitted. This is precision and sampling rate. For human speech, it is considered acceptable to take a sample 8000 times per second and the data can be recorded with the use of 8 binary units ("bits"). This means that a digital recording of human speed will require 480,000 bytes (8 bits), or 480 KB per minute of recording. In the case of "high fidelity" digital recordings of music, the sampling rate can be increased and the precision may also be increased. This ends up with a greater amount of data.

Currently, a popular way to record this data is on optical disks. The digital data are marked on the optical media with very, very small pits. A pit can be considered to be a "1" and a land (non-pit) can be considered to be a "0". Note that this is actually very similar to analog engravings except for the nature of the data. Please also note that the exact encoding is actually more complicated than I am saying -- check other sources for more precise descriptions.

A larger difference form analog data, however, is how the data are read once recorded. An optical disk makes use of a laser which can tell whether there is a pit or a land by the timing of the reflection from the medium. This reading is non-destructive and, as long as the optical medium is not otherwise damaged, should retain data unchanged for a long time.

We now enter into the third area of data recordings which is storage space. An audio CD makes use of a near-infrared laser (wavelength of 780 nm). This wavelength determines how dense the data can be placed on the optical medium. For an audio CD, using 780 nm wavelength lasers, about 737 MB (megabytes) of data can be stored in a single layer (a disk CAN have multiple layers with the laser reading separately from the different layers of the disk). Since this amount of data is considered to be around 80 minutes of music, we can see that, for an audio CD, each minute takes about 10 MB of data so the precision and sampling rate are much higher than considered acceptable for human speech -- greater "fidelity".

The wavelength of the laser determines density -- how "packed" the data can be. This limits the total amount of data in a predetermined physical size.  One method of increasing the density is by decreasing the wavelength of the laser.

A Blu-Ray disc uses a "blue" (blue is officially considered to be 475 nm) laser with a wavelength of 405 nm. A single layer Blu-Ray disk can store about 25 gigabyte (GB) of data. For audio, this would be about 100 hours using the same encoding as CDs. DVDs use a wavelength of about 650 nm ("true" red)..

Analog and digital data

I thought that I would talk about digital media -- CDs, DVDs, Blu-Ray, and so forth. But then I realized that I really needed to first talk about what digital media are -- and that, in turn, means that it is important to talk about analog.

Analog data are a reflection of events that occur on a continual basis. Such things include time, temperature, sound, moving images, water flowing, and so forth. An analog watch is known by its "face" -- where the "hands" are located to allow a person to interpret the data (information).

It would be completely possible for a watch to have a single hand. All the information is present in the hour hand. However, it is difficult to "read" (interpret) the value with a single hand and, therefore, analog watches and clocks normally have a minute hand and may even have a second hand.

In my old university, they had an analog computer. Set up correctly, it would be able to be used to calculate an exact value for Pi. But this brings up further the problems with analog data -- being able to actually make use of the data in a precise manner.An analog thermometer can give a precise value but can a person really read it that clearly? Is it saying 98.6 or saying 98.53?

Digital data can only create approximations of continual information. There are a lot of non-continual data in the world -- particularly in the area of finances. However, when it comes to continual data, you are involved with sampling rates and precision. The sampling rate is how often you "mark down" the information. You take a sample of sound at 1 hour, 20 minutes, 15 seconds, and 180 milliseconds. You then take a sample of the sound every 20 milliseconds -- but, whatever interval you choose, you are also choosing to ignore the data that exists when you are not taking a sample. You will never really know what happened within that 20 millisecond gap. You can guess what it might be -- that is called interpolation -- but you cannot know.

The second part of digital data is precision. For money (or other non-continual data), the precision is self-defined by what exists (although other units may exist for formulas -- like taxes). For continual data, the precision is a choice. Do you record 98.5, 98.54, 98.536, 98.5359, or what? Once again, you lose data/information and your choice CAN make a difference if the data are used in a repetitive fashion (such as calculating trajectories for a space ship).

So, analog data are accurate but very difficult to interpret precisely. Digital data are an approximation but have ease of interpretation as a built-in aspect of the choices that are made.

And this leads into the next blog "What makes Blu-Ray (TM) Blue?"

Metabolic balance: to lose or gain

People talk about metabolism when they talk about weight gain or loss. Metabolism is actually the entire process of conversion of food into energy and building blocks. What they are truly talking about is "metabolic rate". Someone who is considered to be a "fat burner" actually has a high metabolic rate. Most people know other people who seem to be able to eat just about anything (and everything) and stay thin.

The formula for weight loss (or gain) is "calories taken in - (calories * metabolic rate) = excess/deficit of calories to maintain weight). The body is very smart and it does NOT like to lose weight -- it considers it a "starvation" situation. Thus, when a deficit of calories is taken in, the body will reduce the metabolic rate in order to maintain weight. While it is possible to lose weight by "just" reducing calories, your body will fight it by lowering the metabolic rate and increasing the amount of hunger you feel. Since the body fights loss of weight, it will also respond to lack of calories by burning proteins in addition to fats which will also tend to reduce the metabolic rate.

As mentioned, the body is very "smart" -- it knows how much food is needed to maintain weight and it knows what building blocks (minerals, vitamins, proteins,  However, in current society, we have deadened our abilities to listen to our bodies -- ignoring what it tells us. It is deadened by the pace of our lifestyles as well as the increased availability of calorie-dense foods which appeal to our hunger triggers.

There are things that CAN be done to return control over our ability to listen to our bodies AND take control over whether we are at the weight we desire.

• Exercise. This is probably the number one thing that we can do -- both aerobic (body moving, heart rate increased) and non-aerobic (weights, muscles working hard) exercise are of use. Aerobic exercise on a regular, prolonged, basis help to increase the metabolic rate directly. Anaerobic exercise increases muscle mass which requires more calories to maintain and, thus, effectively increases the metabolic rate. Contrary to popular belief, exercise does not increase appetite although it does help us to listen to our bodies more carefully -- so, if we are hungry, we will feel hungry. Try to drink non-sweetened liquids first, followed by bulkier foods such as celery or carrots.
  
• Meditative exercise. While some aerobic or non-aerobic exercise may take place at the same time, the primary benefit is allowing us to get in touch with the needs of our bodies. Activities such as yoga or meditation, in general, fall into this class.
  
  
• Slow down eating. Take smaller bites and eat slower. This allows the time needed for the body to say "I'm no longer hungry". In order to avoid the lag between eating and satiation (lack of hunger) it is good to stop when one is just a little bit hungry.
  
• Drink non-sweetened liquid. Water is good. Teas and Coffees and flavored waters also work. Artificially sweetened liquids (and foods) do not work well as they tend to actually increase hunger. Filling the stomach with non-sweetened liquids helps to reach satiation quicker.
  
• Spicy food. The capsaicin found in spicy peppers has been shown to increase metabolic rate a little. While this is not highly significant, spicy peppers tend to be mixed in with other vegetables and other non-calorie-dense foods.
  
• Limit calorie-dense foods. We talked about the various components of a healthy diet over a series of blogs. However, calorie-dense foods (high fat, high sugar) are easy to eat "too much" of very quickly. Eat them in small quantities and savor them (eat slowly while enjoying the flavor).
  
• Increase bulky foods. Vegetables, high-fiber complex carbohydrates (oatmeal), and such will satiate with lower calorie foods.

 The bottom line is to allow your body to tell you what it needs. This is very difficult in modern society with its fast pace and a heavily marketed variety of calorie-dense foods but, at the end, you have changed your lifestyle to enjoy the food you eat better and to regain control over your body.

They DON'T make them like they used to.

People sometimes say "they don't make them like they used to" -- usually referring to something that has broken down and has to be recycled, discarded, or replaced. This is a truth that has entered into a special category of use.

The reality is that the way things are made is always changing. Sometimes they are made faster, with new techniques. Sometimes they are made with new features and new technologies. Sometimes they are made, deliberately, to not last as long.

There are three general categories of change in how/why things are made. These can be called "marketing", "manufacturing", and "labor".

• Marketing. This is the active art of consumerism. This is what makes people want to buy something. The global economy is presently structured around consumerism. The rationale falls into what I would call the "three Fs" -- fashion, features, and failure.
  
  Fashion is a desire for something "new" for the sake of having something new. Change in styles are presented as being "better" than what currently exists. "Orange is the new Purple" (Purple having been the previous preferred color). "Chrome is in". Skirt lengths go up -- or down. Teak is the preferred wood. So, out with the old and in with the new (although, if you keep it long enough, the cycle will come back someday).
  
  Features. New programs require faster computers or more memory. Faster speed requires new connectors and those old connectors won't work anymore. This hat has a higher SPF (Sun Protection Factor). The new game has more versatile character sets and better graphics. There is "improvement" but marketing works to move it from the "want" to "need" category.
  
  Failure. I don't think that many manufactures REALLY design their products to fail (they rely on fashion and features more to entice you to get something new). However, they do have a desired lifetime for the product when they create it. Too short and you won't buy their products again. Too long and you won't need to buy their products again if fashion or features don't draw you away. And, within that designed product lifetime, it causes choices to be made in manufacturing. Given a choice between a less expensive part that lasts "lifetime + a little more" and a more expensive part that lasts "three lifetimes" -- they will make it with the less expensive part. So, manufacturing (next section) is designed with the projected lifetime in mind.
• Manufacturing. As mentioned in a previous blog, technology and manufacturing rely on a pyramid of tools and less complicated parts. Manufacturing a DVR requires laser technology, semiconductor technology, power technology, and so forth. What this means to the consumer is that the end product is made up of more complicated, but fewer, separate ("discrete") parts.
  
  It may be faster, smaller, and less energy consuming ("green") but it will also be more complex. Most technology is now manufactured largely by "robotic" technology with humans doing the specialized work that doesn't justify building a more-specific "robot". This is even true for things like clothing where the fibers are made, or spun, or extruded by factory processes and then machined/loomed/created by machines that may only need humans to replace spools or to adjust things that have gone slightly askew.
  
  In summary for manufacturing -- fewer, more complex parts that avoid human interaction in creation.
• Labor. This area directly goes "hand in hand" with manufacturing. In countries where labor costs are "high", it may cost more to repair something than to replace it. In countries where labor costs are "low", you can find items repaired in extremely ingenious ways (they weren't designed to be repaired) because the cost of repairing is less than replacement.

So, they DON'T make them like they used to and we probably don't want them to do so. What we do want is to have the items last as long as WE want them to rather than as the manufacturer has determined. Often, choices are available but we don't know what those choices include -- expected durability is not something that is advertised on the packing of products. We rely on consumer groups and other people's ratings to make choices. And, I guess, that is the best we'll do for a while.

Smoke Gets in Your Lungs

In the present day, there's a lot of controversy about smoking. Old substances (tobacco) are in decline and are often under public disdain. "New" ones (marijuana) are in ascendance and are becoming more acceptable and may even cross the line back into legality (it's not really new and has a long history of various stages of legality -- see the Wikipedia entry Legal History of Cannabis).

However, because of its controversial legality and use, the health aspects of marijuana smoking have not been pursued as it has been for tobacco. There are also other substances that are sometimes smoked -- heated and inhaled or brought into the mouth. So, let's take a step back and just look into the smoke.

Smoke occurs when substances are burned. Many firefighter (and people trapped in fire areas)  injuries are associated with smoke inhalation. There are good (but highly technical) sources such as Wikipedia for articles on the various possibilities depending on factors such as heat, presence of other substances, humidity, and so forth. In this blog, we will concentrate on the tobacco and marijuana smoke voluntarily inhaled in relatively limited amounts by "smokers" and "tokers".

Smoke has four major aspects: carbon monoxide, tars and particulates, active ingredients, and additives.

1. Carbon Monoxide. This gas is created by incomplete burning of the material. It is primarily a danger to those "inhaling" as it is more lung-related. It is present in all smoke in varying degrees and is considered to be a poison as the body will absorb it and it decreases general function and may cause death. It is absorbed into the blood cells and decreases the ability to absorb oxygen and, thus, reduces stamina and general ability to perform at optimum levels. There is little difference in the effects between tobacco and marijuana smoke.
   
   
2. Tars and Particulates. These are the visible parts of smoke -- if you can see it, they are present. They are what cause the darkened areas of X-rays of lungs. "Tars" are resinous substances -- usually quite sticky and they cause the staining of teeth (and lungs) and can act as a kind of glue in the lungs, reducing the ability of the lungs to absorb oxygen. The particulates can vary in size depending on the temperature of the burning material and the size of the parts being burned and can act as an irritant causing more mucous production which is a major cause of "smoker's cough". It takes about five years for the lungs to fully repair from the damage caused by these substances and is considered to be a major trigger of lung cancer. This area could use more study but it is likely that there is little difference between tobacco and marijuana smoke.
   
   
3. Active Ingredients. These are the substances that interact with other parts of the body to cause the effects anticipated by smokers and tokers. In tobacco, this substance is nicotine which has many effects but primarily acts as a stimulant. It also has a mile diuretic (body water removing) effect which may cause weight loss for beginning smokers (and cause some temporary weight gain after quitting). It is water-soluble and, thus, is ideally administered via smoking. Anecdotally, nicotine is considered to help general focus and mental activity but there are no controlled studies verifying this. Nicotine also tends to paralyze the cilia in the trachea (windpipe) and, thus, may increase mucous retention and coughing. There are a few minor medical purposes for nicotine but it is highly physically addictive
   
   The primary active ingredient in marijuana is tetrahydrocannabinol (usually referred to, for obvious reasons, as THC). Its effects vary from individual to individual and is considered primarily a "psychoactive" (acting primarily on the central nervous system) drug. Common effects include increased appetite, decreased nausea and pain, and a reduced sperm production in men. It is not considered to be highly physically addictive although a varying amount of emotional or psychological addiction is possible for both marijuana and tobacco.
   
   
4. Additives. Since tobacco has been legal for many years and is a highly competitive industry, each company does what it can to both distinguish and "enhance" its brand of tobacco. Glycerin is normally added to increase shelf life and prevent the tobacco from drying out. Formaldehyde (think of frogs in jars in biology class) is added to make absorption and crossover to the brain more rapid. This increases the risk of physical addiction. Many other additives are also present -- from spices such as cinnamon and cloves to liquids such as menthol and other oils. Formaldehyde is known as a carcinogen and the burning by-products of the other additives have not been extensively tested. However, this is an area that is highly likely to contribute to act as cancerous triggers (especially for non-lung-related cancers). Tobacco is much worse in this area than marijuana.

Inhaling or not inhaling? As a water-soluble drug, the effects of nicotine are dependent upon the surface area times the duration of exposure. This is also true for other additive burn by-products. Thus, inhaling would be worse if holding it in the mouth was done for the same amount of time. However, this is not actually the case as cigar and pipe smokers tend to allow the smoke to remain in their mouths longer. Thus, there may be close to the same exposure for nicotine and additives. However, there would still be greatly reduced effects from the carbon monoxide and particulates. With THC, it varies upon the general environment. It is not considered to be water-soluble but it IS lipid (fats) and alcohol-soluble so, if taken with food or drink, it is probably absorbed as readily (or more readily) than bringing into the lungs.

What's the fuss about GMOs?

There has been a lot of flurry about Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) in the press and Internet. What is a GMO and what are the concerns about it? GMOs are actually the tail end of a sequence of food modifications -- the process is the least "natural" and the most uncertain as to long-term consequences. The series begins with natural hybridization, leads through human hybridization, and continues to GMOs.

• Natural hybridization. Plants and animals change over time. Through a process of "natural selection" and "spontaneous mutation", life changes to adapt to best survive in a particular environment. Sometimes this combination of processes is called "evolution". A "spontaneous mutation" isn't anything menacing or bad -- it just means that the "child" is significantly different from the "parent". If the change brings advantages then the "child" is more likely to survive. If the change brings disadvantages then the "child is less likely to survive. This is "natural selection" and it applies to all plants and animals.
  
  
• Human-directed hybridization. Plants and animals are naturally diverse. They have slightly different characteristics from each other. By choosing life that has attributes that are "desirable" to propagate to the next generation -- mixing and choosing -- new combinations of attributes will emerge within the offspring.
  
  The difference between this and natural hybridization is that the new attributes are not normally chosen based on the plant surviving without human intervention. In fact, the opposite is often true. Human hybridized life often requires ongoing human intervention. This may include more water than is naturally available within the region. It may require special weeding and chemical support. If left alone, without human support, it will often "revert" back to the varieties that best survive.
  
  
• A GMO takes this choice one (considerable) step further. The actual seeds, or eggs, are manipulated to add or remove genetic material from one form of life and integrated together. The goal is to make the genetic change inheritable from one generation to the next. One can look at it as "non-spontaneous" mutation. Desired attributes may include "better" flavor, easier transportation, longer lasting after harvest ("shelf life"), faster or greater growth, or greater production (more fruit or milk produced, for example).
  
  There is nothing specifically bad about this -- it is just hurrying nature along. However, many of these changes are highly unlikely to ever occur spontaneously. Some genetic material from animals may be added to plants or vice versa.
  
  The primary warning, or fear, from GMOs is that, by introducing life that would probably never occur naturally, there is little knowledge of what the long term interactions within the ecosystem, or between producers and consumers, will be. There may be little difference between the genetics of a nutritious plant and that of a slow-acting poison. Studies of new organisms rarely are long-term, checking effects through the generations.
  
  Another problem is that GMOs may be patented. The courts sometimes take a contrary view of this by applying existing patent logic. Existing patent logic is based on the idea that patented ideas/materials can spread only by being "taken" or specifically reproduced. Thus, plants that contain the patented genes have "stolen" the new material. While this follows existing patent logic it does not apply properly to living material that can naturally spread. It should be treated as "invasive" or an "infection" where the GMO is actually "attacking" the non-modified life. Patent law needs to be updated to existing realities.

GMOs are not inherently bad. They are inherently a change and changes take a while to determine benefits or risks. GMOs already are in wide use within human food. Some countries require GMOs to be labeled as such, feeling like the public should be aware they are part of a long-term study of effects. However, due to the widespread use of GMOs, food producers often fight against this notification. Specifically, corn is often a GMO plant and, in the U.S., corn syrup is used in many food products. Most food (including sweetened carbonated beverages) would need GMO labeling because the product includes GMOs.

The Science and Economics of Nutrition, Summary

We've seen that nutrition involves bringing into the body a full set of "building blocks" such that the body can build, repair, and maintain itself.

Starvation occurs when the body does not have enough calories to maintain its "operational needs" -- not enough fuel to keep going. When the body does not have enough calories, it first burns stored fats and then starts burning proteins -- which include muscles and organs (such as the heart) and eventually causes death.

Malnutrition occurs when the body does not have enough of all of the different "building blocks" to create, repair, and maintain the various components of the body. This is particularly devastating to the young when they are initially forming the body -- it can cause long-term effects. (In adults, temporary malnutrition can be recovered from unless it lasts too long.). Illness and inability to perform daily tasks well are often the outcome of malnutrition.

In the U.S., we are fortunate that private charitable food banks and government programs make starvation almost non-existent. However, malnutrition exists to a considerable degree with a greater concentration among the poor.

There are four components of achieving good nutrition. These are knowledge of good nutritional needs, action taken based on that knowledge, time, and money. Most of the focus is on knowledge -- but many educational programs in school attempt to avoid science and rely on "rote" formulas. This lack of foundational understanding of nutrition makes the task of achieving good nutritional balance difficult in an atmosphere of mass media marketing. False, or misleading, claims are easily accepted. Sometimes it causes rote formulas to be followed such as "red meat is bad" without understanding WHY read meat CAN be "bad".

Money directly enters into nutritional decisions. Good nutrition is more expensive than poor nutritive, high calorie choices. Given a sufficient budget, however, it is possible to provide good nutritional meals but it requires time to plan, choose, and prepare good meals.

I have never encountered a "30 minute meal" that I can prepare in 30 minutes. A parent who is working two (or three) part-time minimum wage jobs does not want to allocate the time -- there is homework to work with, houses to clean, medical appointments and soccer games to juggle. Well balanced restaurant meals are expensive but fast food alternatives are widely, and energetically, marketed and sold to the public.

Frozen vegetables are more nutritious but take more time to prepare than canned. Given a choice between a $1 apple and a $1 candy bar -- which do you think most children would choose?

Many books and even television series have been produced about good nutrition. In order for it to be applied, however, the underlying principles need to be understood in order to map that information to good choices that can be applied each day.

The Science and Economics of Nutrition, Part 5

In the past few posts, I have talked about the three caloric supports of nutrition -- fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. Carbohydrates only supply energy but fats and proteins also supply necessary "building blocks" for the body to build and repair itself. However, these are not sufficient -- it is also necessary to have other components which we usually call vitamins and minerals.

Vitamins are organic compounds that cannot cannot be synthesized by the human body. Thus, some items (such as Vitamin C) are needed vitamin for humans but not considered such for other animals. Vitamins primarily act as catalysts for building processes within the body. This means that they help the body produce needed cells and substances but are not directly incorporated into the body.

Minerals are often thought of as the "basic elements" such as Calcium, Iron, Copper, and so forth. However, most minerals in the diet are actually combinations of elements -- often with Oxygen but possibly a combination of various elements such as Calcium and Carbon. Since Oxygen is such a high percentage (about 46.6% by weight) of the earth's crust, it has to be expected that Oxygen will be incorporated in many minerals.

Minerals and vitamins interact in various ways. For example, it is difficult for the body to use Calcium unless sufficient quantities of Vitamin D (particularly D3) are present in the diet. On the other hand, if the body doesn't have enough Magnesium, then the Calcium will "substitute" and there might be a deficiency of Calcium available in the body. Some minerals help regulate specific processes in the body -- Chromium is often considered to be important in insulin production within the pancreatic glands.

Vitamins and minerals can be obtained via meats and other animal products. However, since vitamins can be weakened, or destroyed, by cooking, meats are not a preferred source of vitamins.

Fruits and vegetables really shine when it comes to providing the body with vitamins and minerals. They are usually cooked less, or left raw, and this means the nutrients are left intact for the body to use. In addition, the organic compounds which contain the minerals are thought to be better utilized by the body than those from an inorganic source.

Alas, fresh fruits and vegetables are quite expensive on a per-calorie basis. Canned produce are less expensive but often have reduced nutrients due to the canning process and, in the U.S., are often compromised with added salt and sugar. Frozen fruits and vegetables are often the best balance of nutrition and cost -- but, of course, requires a freezer for storage.

One of the biggest challenges in food preparation of fruits and vegetables is countering the media advertising for processed foods. The more processing, the more profits. The more home processing (or preparing a recipe, if you prefer), the more time needed. We will go more into these trade-offs in the next blog, which will be a summary of nutrition with an emphasis on economics.

The Science and Economics of Nutrition, Part 4

Carbohydrates are an important part of a general diet because they provide fuel for the body. They are not directly used as building blocks but provide energy for use of fats and proteins and incorporating minerals and vitamins into our bodies. They consist of only Carbon, Oxygen, and Hydrogen atoms -- thus, the name "carbohydrates" although they are not chemically considered to be "hydrates".

When I was double-checking my sources for this article, I found that I had incorrect ideas about alcohol. Alcohol (or, more specifically, ethanol -- drinking alcohol) is NOT considered to be a carbohydrate in spite of having only carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. However, just as ethanol can be used to fuel machines, our bodies can make use of it as an energy source. Alcohol provides about 7 calories per gram (almost as caloric as fat). Alcohol is not considered to be nutritional and burning alcohol is hard on the body (the liver in particular) and should be used sparingly. A tablespoon of pure alcohol would be about 85 calories -- an 8 ounce glass of wine about 190 calories.

Carbohydrates are largely the same as saccharides. Saccharides are grouped into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The first two are usually referred to as "sugars" while the other ones have various names including "starches". Since carbohydrates do not provide any "building block" materials the amount can actually be fairly low with calories provided by fats and proteins -- but this is not really recommended. The range of percentage of calories provided by carbohydrates in the diet is suggested to be in the 45% to 65% region.with simple "sugars" limited to around 10%.

It is difficult to discuss carbohydrates without bringing dietary fiber into the discussion. Dietary fiber is looked at as being in two categories -- soluble and insoluble fiber; "good carbs" are talked about versus "bad carbs". It really isn't a matter of the carbohydrates -- it is how they are utilized within the body. The metabolism of carbohydrates (and fats) is regulated by insulin and, thus, eating "simple" carbohydrates will cause a rapid rise of insulin in the body which is hard on the body and related to metabolic problems like diabetes. Soluble fiber works with carbohydrates to allow the digestion to be greatly slowed and extended (look at it as "time released" carbohydrates) and this allows the carbohydrates to be better utilized by the body. A system called the Glycemic Index is a good method of determining the gentleness of different carbohydrates in the diet. Note that insoluble fiber is of use, also, as it provides "roughage" to allow the muscles of the digestive and excremental tracts to be more effective.

One aspect of the Glycemic Index is that it is an isolative, or simplified, look at a single food source. It is possible to still have a gentle diet with simple carbohydrates if it is eaten WITH other foods that can supply the soluble fiber. Thus, rice is not really easy on the body -- but eating rice with high-fiber foods such as beans, or seaweed, or vegetables means that the entire meal is well balanced. This is why many diets that rely on rice are healthy -- it is because they are in combination with other foods which supply needed soluble fiber.

The economics of carbohydrates come into play because simple carbohydrates are inexpensive and, thus, are easily incorporated into unhealthy diets. More balanced carbohydrate sources, such as oats, barley, and beans are also fairly inexpensive but it requires more time to work with them. In the area of applied nutrition, time does equal money. Thus, many fast processed foods have a high percentage of simple carbohydrates and fats. In part six of this series, we will discuss how the choices for food can be made, could be made, and are normally made. (In part five, we will finish up the nutritive discussion with vitamins and minerals.)

In summary, carbohydrates provided needed energy for the body to be active and build cells. In order to be used in a manner that is easier on the body, the entire meal must be planned and examined.

The Science and Economics of Nutrition, part 3

When it comes to the area of proteins, the description of food as building blocks is even more directly true than ever. Although most of us think of proteins in terms of muscle and (possibly) hair/fingernails, proteins are an important part of our entire body -- from "scaffolding" for cell walls to acting as catalysts for general digestion.

However, protein eaten does not directly translate to protein built in the body. The body's digestive processes break down proteins into building blocks called amino acids. It then uses these amino acids, as determined by specific gene sequences, to create the proteins the body needs. There are 20 or 21 (depending on how you classify them) amino acids used within the human body. Some of these can be created by the body from general food (that is, not amino acids). Others can be created from other amino acids (changed from one to another). Some, however, must be eaten and these are the "essential" amino acids.

Essential amino acids must be part of a regular diet -- but that doesn't mean they all have to be eaten each day. The body just must have a reserve of them in the "storehouse".

Meat has the advantage in that the animal has already gathered up, or created, the various amino acids needed. However, it is fully possible to get all the needed amino acids from a varied vegetarian diet. The mixes needed to have a complete set are called "complementary" foods. Beans and rice work as complementary" foods. Lentils and barley are a great combination. There are many others.

As mentioned, meats give "complete" sets of proteins -- whether it be beef, poultry, fish, pork or some other meat from animals. Beef often gets a bad name as a meat. This is not because of the protein but, rather, from the saturated fat that is often mixed in with the protein. Depending on the particular cut of meat and the way that it is prepared, it is possible to have very lean, healthy, beef as a part of a meal. In fact, if you prepare poultry in a high-fat manner (think fried chicken), chicken can have higher levels of fat than beef. Fish is often separated from other types of meat because the fat which it contains is normally UNsaturated (including "Omega-3" (linoleic) acids). Thus, fish protein is lean and the oils that come with it are recommended types of oils.

In the area of economics, meat is an expensive choice. This is largely because it is higher on the "food chain". In the U.S., at the grocery store, chicken can average $3/pound, turkey $1.50/pound, fresh fish may cost $7/pound (depending on geographic location). It is difficult to spend less than $1.50/pound for meat but it is possible to spend more than $50/pound for particular cuts of meat or specially prepared meat or varieties of animal meat. On the other hand, a combination of lentils and barley (enough for a single person) may only cost 30 cents ($0.30). If you choose the vegetarian route then you have three advantages -- cost, a light footprint on the earth (less of earth's resources used) and an automatic advantage in not getting "unhealthy" fats (allowing you to choose what fats to incorporate within your meals). The disadvantage is that you MUST vary your diet deliberately in order to have what your body needs.

One additional disadvantage of animal meats should be mentioned. This is the fact that most meats available at grocery stores are "factory meats". The animals have been treated as raw materials to produce meat. Not only are these methods not kind to the animals but the process requires antibiotics and hormones to keep the animals alive long enough to harvest. The factory meat process is probably the largest reason for waves of recalls of contaminated meat. (Note, however, that vegetable products are not immune to this -- the recent recall of peanut products.). While you can get non-factory meat, it will be more expensive and it still requires a lot of food (particularly grain products) to produce.

I love a good hamburger -- and bacon must truly be set into a class of its own. However, I also love a good lentil and quinoa salad. We are designed to be omnivores and, as long as we are aware of what we eat, we can get good protein into our diet in many different ways.